Monday 27 November 2017
Freud, S. (1923) The Ego and the ID
Freud, in his second theory about the structure of the physic apparatus, distinguishes three fundamental instances. The 'Id', formed by the conscious and unconscious, is the psychic expression of drives and desires. It is in conflict with the 'Ego' and 'Super-Ego'. The 'Ego' is the acting psychic instance and is the mediator between the other two. It tries to conciliate the normative and punitive exigences of the 'Super-Ego' as well as the demands of the 'Id' to satisfy unconscious desires. Its function is to achieve the greatest degree of pleasure in the limits of reality. The 'Super-ego' is the judge of the Ego, and constitutes the internalisation of the norms, rules and parental prohibitions. The specific functions of each entity are not always clear and they are interwoven in many levels and personality is constituted by this model of diverse forces in inevitable conflict.
Second tutorial
For this second tutorial I had sent the draft of my first chapter to Ben in advance so we could go through the corrections together.
There was an overuse of Packard that had to be corrected as well as other poor arguments that needed to be backed up with evidence. Ben suggested me to look into the work of Barbara Kruger and to carry out a practical work based on one of the tasks we did at the beginning of the course, to tell a lie convincingly.
He also suggested me to contact the studio mother agency, but after writing the second chapter with the information I already had gathered it's probably not going to be necessary. Some other references were mentioned, like the book 'can jokes bring down governments?' and Freud theories about jokes and humour. The idea was to create a fake product/brand/service that was convincing to test the credibility of the ways of persuasion from the theorist mentioned in the dissertation.
There was an overuse of Packard that had to be corrected as well as other poor arguments that needed to be backed up with evidence. Ben suggested me to look into the work of Barbara Kruger and to carry out a practical work based on one of the tasks we did at the beginning of the course, to tell a lie convincingly.
He also suggested me to contact the studio mother agency, but after writing the second chapter with the information I already had gathered it's probably not going to be necessary. Some other references were mentioned, like the book 'can jokes bring down governments?' and Freud theories about jokes and humour. The idea was to create a fake product/brand/service that was convincing to test the credibility of the ways of persuasion from the theorist mentioned in the dissertation.
Saturday 25 November 2017
Second Chapter - Current brand strategies
A strategy is a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time. The following chapter explains how these processes work in order to put theory into practice. By understanding these frameworks, their strenghts and weaknesses, it is possible to apply them and provide improvements if they were to be identified.
The strategy that precedes a design process works for the recognition or appearance of the brand. It has a long-term character and its most important aim is to maintain a consistency in appearance that results in a more recognisible product, service or company. Saffron Consultants (2015) divides branding projects into five different categories: Re-positioning, re-structuring, specialised focus, creation, and revolution. They explain that branding is a process of discovering a business. This understanding increases up to the point where the strategist considers there is enough evidence that can be reduced to a very specific message. Mushtaq (2017) considers of great importance to understand the subject around a product or service, its audience and what is already been done with similar products. It is a process of finding a balance between what makes a company unique, what it is that their competition cannot match and the needs of their audience. The whole process is about focusing on what makes them different, which might be a very small part of what they are, but much more relevant and with more importance than the rest of it. Fontvila (2016) carries out a workflow involving research into the background, structure, concept, personality, positioning, and target audience. Very similar to 'Core' (Do and Caballer, 2014) in essence - discussed later -, his conceptualisation of the brand relies on the definition of the concept through values, attributes (considered here as physical characteristics) and emotional benefits. He uses the brand value pyramid, which highlights the importance of beliefs and values, followed by the benefits and gives less importance to the physical characteristics. The reason is that these features are difficult to manage when it comes to creating a differentiation from the competition. For example, it is impossible to make a company that makes biscuits stand out for making biscuits with chunks of chocolate, as there are many others doing the exact same thing and is probably more popular than them.
The strategy that precedes a design process works for the recognition or appearance of the brand. It has a long-term character and its most important aim is to maintain a consistency in appearance that results in a more recognisible product, service or company. Saffron Consultants (2015) divides branding projects into five different categories: Re-positioning, re-structuring, specialised focus, creation, and revolution. They explain that branding is a process of discovering a business. This understanding increases up to the point where the strategist considers there is enough evidence that can be reduced to a very specific message. Mushtaq (2017) considers of great importance to understand the subject around a product or service, its audience and what is already been done with similar products. It is a process of finding a balance between what makes a company unique, what it is that their competition cannot match and the needs of their audience. The whole process is about focusing on what makes them different, which might be a very small part of what they are, but much more relevant and with more importance than the rest of it. Fontvila (2016) carries out a workflow involving research into the background, structure, concept, personality, positioning, and target audience. Very similar to 'Core' (Do and Caballer, 2014) in essence - discussed later -, his conceptualisation of the brand relies on the definition of the concept through values, attributes (considered here as physical characteristics) and emotional benefits. He uses the brand value pyramid, which highlights the importance of beliefs and values, followed by the benefits and gives less importance to the physical characteristics. The reason is that these features are difficult to manage when it comes to creating a differentiation from the competition. For example, it is impossible to make a company that makes biscuits stand out for making biscuits with chunks of chocolate, as there are many others doing the exact same thing and is probably more popular than them.
In relation to what others have said about doing the opposite of what the competitors are doing and highlighting what is different about them, Fontvila (2016) uses a semantic differential scale. This helps to clearly see how a company is different from the rest and how they can exploit that difference to create a unique position in the mind of the customers. These differentiators are called creative axes and they are used to build the band upon based on the distinctivity of the values, emotional benefits and attributes in this order of importance. On the example below, the most noticeable difference between this company and its competition is the creative and emotional aspect in opposition to a more classic and rational competition.
Saffron Consultants (2015) explain that the nature and aptitude of the brand will inform the attitude it will have towards their customers. The values and personality create the idea of the brand, the essence: the briefest and straightforward expression of what a brand represents; the core thinking that rules every other action and brand expressions. Mushtaq (2017) argues that the way a brand expresses itself can be by purposely challenging conventions, and that can inform the colours, fonts, imagery, a tone of voice that amplifies the message that needs to be conveyed. Lusensky (2010) points out the importance to keep these expressions flexible in order to be modified depending on the company's initiative or market situations. Sinek (2009) defends the same point of view as Mushtaq and explains that successful companies like Apple understand that they have to do the opposite their competition is doing. Normally, companies say what they do, how they do it and why they do it, but if this message is delivered the other way around it becomes much more powerful. For example: 'We make great computers, beautifully designed and simple to use. We like to think differently and challenge the status quo' is the wrong way of a more powerful option. It should be: 'We like to think differently and challenge status quo using beautiful design and simplicity. We just happen to make great computers as a result'. Sinek (2009) is very clear about this, and claims that "people do not buy what you do, they buy why you do it". Adams and Morioka (2006) call this the company's mission, and they should reflect why it is worth doing what they do beyond economics. The goal for a company is not to do businesses with whoever needs what they have but to do business with people that believe what they believe. As discussed in the first chapter, consumers buy meaning.
Do and Caballer (2014) carry out a process called 'Core', another approach to strategy that helps to design a brief, as many times clients know about their problems but not the solutions they need. Many studios hand to the client a list of questions in order to gather information for the development and conceptualisation, but 'Core' is more about a psychological session consisting in designing a strategy using what the clients already know. Also, it allows stakeholders or multiple decision makers to define common objectives. Adams and Morioka (2006) also highlight the importance of the opportunities for the growth that the client may have already identified. 'Core' (Do and Caballer, 2014) consists of three different stages. The first one is to provide a framework for the client to define their brand attributes with adjectives. These adjectives must fall into these categories: General aspects of the company, its culture, users, the tone of voice, emotional benefits and values. Those adjectives are written in columns as shown below.
Once this process is finished, the words have to be shortlisted down to three for each column, and then to only one. This will help the owners of a brand to define it in their own words. By using the shortlisted words, they can create a sentence that summarises the concept: '(Brand name) provides (product/service) to (users) customers in a (culture) environment with a (voice) voice helping them feel (emotional benefit)". An example of this is "Tea Haus provides custom teas to health-conscious customers in a sophisticated environment with a wise voice. Helping them feel mindful and re-energised'. The second stage of 'Core' consists in a definition of the target audience to the maximum possible level of detail that includes the demographics of the target, the story and background, their needs and how to surpass those needs they have. Positioning, as previously discussed, is about aligning values with clients, and these can be profiled based on their interests. The process would be to profile consumers, learn about their businesses and how they behave. This allows marketers to increase the price of a product depending on its location. For example, a Coca-Cola is 300% more expensive at shops that are nearby beaches because there is where they are really required. That is why Lexus, Toyota, and Scion are the same company. Their purpose is to cover different audiences and that is how they find the right position for their wide range of products. Do and Caballer (2014) claim that it is important to match and mirror them, release a message and stick to it. If the motivations are aligned, consumers will feel they have a purpose shared with a company. Sinek (2009) contradicts this idea of matching and mirroring. He defines it as asking friends "what should I dress for you to like me more". Organisations should say and do the things they actually believe in and they will attract people with similar values, and that is where authenticity can be an added value. Authenticity is strictly related to what Packard (1957) called 'the sense of roots', which was to pack in a product a feeling that humans collectively associate to what they consider a better past time so they can relive it by buying the product.The third and last phase consists in making a list of priorities for the company's revenue, awareness and efficiency in order to design a well defined brief that will use the information about brand attributes gathered in the first stage, a detailed profiling of the target audience in the second one, and a clear vision of the company's goals to be tackled down with the branding project.
The processes that have been explained can be combined into one that enhances the strengths of each one and covers each others' weaknesses. The process of 'Core' combined with the use of a semantic differential scale gives the designer a clear view of what needs to be done for a brand to do what is expected of it. The awareness of the importance that intangible features of a brand have over the physical attributes in order to create a unique position for it is already implicit in 'Core', but it is one to always consider when dealing with an overcrowded market. Nowadays, Roberts (2005) predictions of brands evolving into something that customers truly love and remain totally devoted to are happening. He named them "Lovemarks", and there are three main factors for this evolution: storytelling, sensuality through all the senses and dialogue. Storytelling is already happening through different media, especially graphic design. By assigning certain colours, typographies and other visual elements to brand attributes and personality the brand creates a meaningful way of expression that is unconsciously detected by the audience. Social media is providing the dialogue between companies and customers not only by having a space to chat, but by creating interactive content that send messages in both directions. It is a matter of time that technology will evolve for humans to experience brands through smell or touch from their computers.
Thursday 9 November 2017
Current brand strategies
Saffron - UK/Spain (2015)
Branding course at Doméstika
Saffron is the studio created by Jacob Benbunan and Wally Olins. The studio divides branding projects into different categories: Re-positioning, re-structuring, specialised focus, creation, and revolution. They explain that branding is a process of discovering, where the designer's understanding of business increases and has to be reduced to a very specific message. They try to find a balance between what makes unique a company, what is it that their competition cannot match and what do their audiences need. The whole process is about making what makes them different, which might be a very small part of what they are, much more relevant and with more importance than the rest of it.
The nature and aptitude of the brand will inform the attitude it will have towards their customers. The values and personality create the idea of the brand, the essence: the briefest and straightforward expression of what a brand represents; the core thinking that rules every other action and brand expressions.
Alphabet - UK (2017)
Interview.
Alex.
I think the main question would be: what is the process you guys follow when it comes to giving an identity to a brand? With 'what' I mean what boxes you aim to tick. Your design decisions are based on your own understanding of the world and the audiences, on research or do you rely on science like psychology? Or a mixture of everything? I find particularly interesting that when I'm walking, let's say, through a supermarket, I see people (and I do this myself) stopping for something we have seen but we don't know about just because the colours/shapes/typefaces/inserthereanyotherfeature appeals to us unconsciously. Of course, it is very personal and every product is designed to appeal to certain demographic... but I ask you specifically because you particularly design things in a very different and innovative way that makes things very appealing (I'm thinking now about your work with Hippo&Crate). I know my question might be too loose... don't sweat it. Just let me know what you think it's the 'formula' (that's not the word I'm looking for, but I guess that's a way to put it) of making a brand that works.
Abbas Mushtaq
I think when you work on a brief it all depends on the brief really. A positive about being a designer or a creative is that you end up knowing a little, about a lot of things. It’s important to understand the subject you’re working in, what the product is, who the audience is, what’s already out there. When you know that, then you can indeed look at design in a more scientific way, it’s good to do that, but use it as a means to amplify your creativity. For example, you might want the branding to be really loud, catch people's eye, and be different to what’s out there because your concept might be to flip convention on its head and approach something from a different way. So with that in mind, you can make calculated decisions about what kind of colours, fonts, imagery a tone of voice amplifies the idea you have. Likewise, if you want something calming, it’s important your design follows suit. There’s a quote from Saul Bass that’s always stuck with me – “Design is thinking made visual” . I couldn’t put it any better than that! I also think it’s important to find a clear aim and passion for every project. It’s not always easy to do this, but always better when you do. For example with a project, you might want to do something completely different. If you look around at what kind photography and look and feel similar brands have, you want to do the opposite. And so on. So research and comfort with what you’re doing is very important and a continuous learning curve for all of us. Even after finishing studying it’s easy to blindly jump into a project and push pixels around till it looks “nice”. But this is not how great work is done, and we all fall into this trap sometimes. Don’t make a habit of it!
Blind - USA (2014)
The word 'strategy' has certain negative connotations in certain companies because it usually means having several boring meetings that do not really yield any actions or results. Core is a process that helps designers to create a brief because many times the client does not even have a brief. Also, it allows stakeholders or multiple decision makers to define common objectives. In order to do this, a strategy is needed. All strategy is, it is a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time. Core also includes designers in the strategy, which many agencies and companies do not do. After the process, the brand, its costumers and goals will be clearly defined by the clients themselves.
The price of a product or service depends on its location. For example, a Coca-Cola is 300% more expensive at shops that are nearby beaches because there is where they are really required. That's why Lexus, Toyota, and Scion are the same company. They are for different audiences and that is how they find the right position for their wide range of products. Positioning is about aligning values with clients, and these can be profiled based on their interests. In short, the process would be to: profile clients/customers, learn about their businesses and how they behave, match and mirror them, release a message and stick to it. If the motivations are aligned, the 'why' will be shared. (---Simon Sinek explains why this is important----)
Simon Sinek - The Golden Circle - USA (2009)
Succesful companies like Apple understand that they have to do the opposite their competition is doing. Normally, companies say what they do, how they do it and why they do it, but it has to be the other way around. For example: "we make great computers, beautiful design and simple to use. We like to think differently and challenge the status quo" is the wrong way of a more powerful option. "We like to think differently and challenge status quo using beautiful design and simplicity. We just happen to make great computers as a result".
People do not buy what you do, they buy why you do it. The goal is not to do businesses with whoever needs what you have. The goal is to do business with people that believe what you believe. Because people buy stuff to prove what they believe in.
An example of a failure is the company Tivo. They sold their product as a way to skip commercials on TV, to record programs... if instead they would have said "do you want to be in control of your life? We have a product for you". If Martin Luther King would have said: "I have a plan" instead of "I have a dream" people would probably not remember him. Simon contradicts what Chris Do and Jose Caballer said about matching and mirroring clients. He defines it as asking your friends "what should I dress for you to like me more". Organisations should say and do the things they actually believe in and they will attract people with similar values, and that is where authenticity can be recognised.
Face - Mexico (2017)
This design studio has their process specified on their website. One of the first things they tackle down is the specific needs of the project. They offer standard and tailored solutions based on the results of this strategy. Then, they hand to the client a list of questions in order to gather information for the development and conceptualization. At this point, they do a background research and competitive profiling. This investigation should throw light on the target audience and market, which helps to identify the overall brand assets. The strategy of the concept is based on the brief and the clients' benchmark, which helps to find the right visual references and define the project.
Ignasi Fontvila (2016)
Ignasi Fontvila is an expert in the field of naming companies and products. This type of work is part of the branding process. Naming a company or a product also requires a workflow involving research into the background, structure, concept, personality and positioning, and target audience. Very similar to 'Core' in essence, his conceptualisation of the brand relies on the definition of the concept, attributes (physical characteristics) and emotional benefits. He uses the brand value pyramid for Bendaryl, which highlights the importance of beliefs and values, followed by the benefits and gives less importance to the physical characteristics, because these are features that are difficult to manage when it comes to create a differentiation from the competition. For example, it's impossible to stand out a biscuit company for making biscuits with chunks of chocolate, as there are many others doing the exact same thing and are more popular than them.
In relation to what others have said about doing the opposite of what the competitors are doing and highlighting what is different, he mentions the use of a semantic differential scale. This helps to clearly see how a company is different from the rest and how they can exploit that difference to create a unique position in the mind of the customers. These differentiators that are going to be used to build the band upon are called creative axes, and they are based on the distinctivity of the attributes, emotional benefits and values. On the example, the most noticeable difference between the two are the creative and emotional aspect in opposition to a more classic and rational competition.
In relation to what others have said about doing the opposite of what the competitors are doing and highlighting what is different, he mentions the use of a semantic differential scale. This helps to clearly see how a company is different from the rest and how they can exploit that difference to create a unique position in the mind of the customers. These differentiators that are going to be used to build the band upon are called creative axes, and they are based on the distinctivity of the attributes, emotional benefits and values. On the example, the most noticeable difference between the two are the creative and emotional aspect in opposition to a more classic and rational competition.
Monday 6 November 2017
First chapter - Former and current ways of persuasion.
In this chapter, the nature of human decisions is going to be explored in the context of marketing as well as how emotions influence the decisions consumers make, the human hidden desires and its links with brands. It will also illustrate how former ways of consumer persuasion are relevant to current markets.
Bernays (1928) thought that human beings are rarely aware of what motivates their actions. He claimed that consumers believe they buy a car because they have concluded that is the best choice after a careful study of technical features from different models. The real reason might be the social environment is pushing that person to buy a certain car. "Many of man's thoughts and actions are compensatory substitutes for desires which have been obliged to suppress" (Bernays, 1928. P. 74). A consumer might not necessarily desire something for its intrinsic worth or usefulness, but because of its meaning. A person might really want a car because it is a symbol of social position, an evidence of success. As Packard (1957) puts it, customers buy a promise. Cosmetics sell hope, not lanolin. Oranges sell vitality. Cars sell prestige. One cannot assume that people know what they want or will tell the truth about it even if they do. Packard (1957) assures that people do not seem to be reasonable in their decisions, but this does not mean they do not have a purpose. Their behaviour makes sense in terms of their goals, needs, and motives. In addition to this, Bernays (1928) said that in order to attract customers, a company needs to understand not only their own business but also the structure, personality, and prejudices of their target audience. DuPont's investigators (1945-1954) found out that many people do not make a list of the things they need to buy in the store, which means that shoppers buy on impulse. James Vicary (quoted in Packard, 1957, p.112) suspected that consumers might be under pressure when confronted with so many different choices that they were forced to quickly decide what to purchase.
Olins (2003) explains that a product can connect with the audience using emotional appeals to encourage people to spend money. The key issue, Olins (2003, p. 11) points out, "it is how and where and in what cause it [emotional appeal] is used that is truly significant". Jannson-Boyd (2010) clarifies that it is important to find a mid-point in arousal, not too high or too low, where the audience can have a higher level of attention to stimulate visual selective attention. Humans explore environments mainly visually and there are several theories of what they normally focus on depending on their culture, language (if they write from left to right or the other way around) and so on. Although, Jannson-Boyd (2010) assures that there is not a consistent pattern of how humans conduct a visual search. Ries and Trout (2001, p.19), whose theories about positioning are relevant later on this text, argues "positioning is an organised system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept that communication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances".
Olins (2003) claims that it is a fact that people like brands. If not, they would not buy them. There is a flaw in this statement because consumers have to buy certain products out of need. Brands compete with each other when two or more meet the same basic function. To understand how brands work it is important to understand what motivates human beings. Abraham Maslow (quoted in Lusensky, 2010, p.35-36) claimed that we all aspire to reach the top of his pyramid, either consciously or unconsciously. For example, 'esteem needs' lack of importance when 'safety needs' are not covered.
The lower part of the pyramid represent the basic needs our modern, convenient and relatively safe society. After fulfilling those, we look for something more. Freud (1923), on the other hand, in his second theory about the structure of the physic apparatus, distinguishes three fundamental instances. The 'Id', formed by the conscious and unconscious, is the psychic expression of drives and desires. It is in conflict with the 'Ego' and 'Super-Ego'. The 'Ego' is the acting psychic instance and is the mediator between the other two. It tries to conciliate the normative and punitive exigences of the 'Super-Ego' as well as the demands of the 'Id' to satisfy unconscious desires. Its function is to achieve the greatest degree of pleasure in the limits of reality. The 'Super-ego' is the judge of the Ego and constitutes the internalisation of the norms, rules and parental prohibitions. The specific functions of each entity are not always clear and they are interwoven in many levels and personality is constituted by this model of diverse forces in inevitable conflict. In this model, things like aesthetic needs are the result of our unconsciousness trying to satisfy the Id. The Id can be equally unsatisfied, and the deprivation of biological and physiological needs can cause a person to accomplish cognitive needs to satisfy the Id.
These models can be applied to marketing strategies. For example, Barbara Kruger uses humour to bring forward unconscious and controversial messages such as 'I shop therefore I am' or 'Buy me, I will change your life' to create a comic, controversial and self-aware environment. Riezebos (2003) says the first choice taken in brand values is the aspiration level of the brand. There are three aspiration levels: the need-driven (related to material and biological consumer needs), the outer-directed (consumers' relational needs) and the inner-directed level (need for self-actualisation). "The choice for an aspiration level can be made by taking three factors into account: the characteristics of the product, the characteristics of the organisation and the choices made by competitors" (Riezebos, 2003, p.61). It is important that the strategy avoids creating conflicts or contradicted messages between the aspiration level of a company. Riezebos (2003) points out that the ideal scenario would be to first choose one or two aspiration levels: one that describes the needs on which the other is focusing in greater detail. Then, Riezebos (2003, p.61) specifies "a maximum of three values may be selected within the aspiration level(s) chosen". In the following table, each aspiration level has specific values.
Customers choose brands to tell others who they are and what they believe in. Consuming is a modern way of unconscious expression. In opposition to what Packard (1957) said about controlling customers decisions, marketing does not have an entire control over the brand, customers do. Its power comes from a mixture of performance and what it stands for. If customers find certain harmony in this mixture, they feel it adds an extra meaning to their identities. Lusensky (2010) puts it simpler: brands establish relationships with customers in a human way, so brands are treated like individuals with their own set of values and beliefs. If a personality can be designed for a business, it means that a business can be personified. Human personality traits are associated with a brand, and sometimes, real persons are utilised to represent a brand. For example, Richard Branson with Virgin. Aaker, J (1997) claims that these traits can be associated indirectly through other features like name, symbol, style, price or distribution channel.
Riezebos (2003) links these ideas with design, explaining that the identity must visualise material brand values and an immaterial experience world using visual codes for recognition. These codes can be kept or broken. Marketers need to understand the communication codes in particular cultures to be in control of the meaning. Unspoken rules and conventions that structure sign systems and meanings, Lawes (2002) says. When a personality has to be faithfully conveyed across different cultures, it is important to consider the five factors of brand personality: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness. Brand personality offers a way for personal expression by the consumer based on metaphors, symbols, emotional benefits and self-expressive benefits. But what counts the most in communication, Ries and Trout (2001) say, it is receptivity. When two individuals fall in love with each other it is because they are both receptive to that idea. One of the main objectives in advertising is to heighten expectations about a product or service and make consumers believe it will perform the expected miracles. In a talk in 1956 in Philadelphia, Pierre Marineau (quoted in Pike, 2015, p. 27) said that advertising is no longer what it was once: a presentation of the merits of a product. The intention is to create an ideal situation where the customer falls in love with the product that is being advertised. To create this illusion, Marineau said the first task is to create a differentiation in the mind of the consumer, an individualisation from the rest.
Ries and Trout (2001) explain different strategies to be heard in a market where every year there is more to be said than what is received. Positioning help marketers to overcome this, but it is not something that can be done to a product. As explained before, it is the mind of the consumer what can be altered to position a product. Ries and Trout (2001) explain that an oversimplified message is the most effective approach to take in an over-communicated society. Olins (2003) agrees and adds that a product must be differentiated and designed to be in a specific way to appeal to a specific market. Names, typefaces, colours or even music and smells derive from emotional power. There are hundreds of similar products in a very competitive market, all fighting each other to get customers attention. Design has the power in making this differentiation through emotions. It is a matter of choosing what is really important in that message for the best chance to get it through. When a company is second in a market, Ries and Trout (2001) explain that there is an opportunity to take the 'uncola' position. This is due to the strategy that 7-Up once carried out, linking their product with something that already existed in the mind of the consumer as an alternative to it. Conventional logic says that the concept can be found in a brand or its product, but this does not work when trying to find a unique position. It is the consumer's mind that creates it. The 'uncola' is not inside a 7-Up can, it is in the drinker's memory. 7-up took into account the position of their competitors.
This is only one example of many different strategies each position requires. These strategies that use existing businesses are directly related to how the signifier and the signified work for semiotic analysis. The signifier (for example, a brand name) does not have a meaning on its own. The meaning is acquired through associations with other pre-existing meanings until it stands on its own. The signifier is a statement of a fact. The signified is a connotative communication that generates associations, feel and overtones. It can be anything that can be linked with the signifier (Rosenbaum-Elliott et al., 2007). In 1982, the French philosopher Jacques Derrida (quoted in Chapman, 2005, p.12) analysed this and explained that meaning cannot be found in the signifier itself. It can only exist in relation to other things. There is little conscious access to this matrix, but it is everywhere in the human world. The absolute identity does not exist because these concepts are co-dependent. This matrix cannot exist without society, so it is a mirror individuals use to assess their own hierarchical position. Material possessions are deployed as signifiers of status. They allow consumers to cast a desired role. Humans consume meaning, not matter. Objects simply provide the canvas for these connotations for the user. These reflections help individuals to construct their own identity and shape their future. As Olins (2003) puts it, markets are very competitive, and rational choice is now an oddity. Brands are there for clarity, status, membership and everything else that helps consumers to define themselves. Claiming that a company is better than its competitors, is not re-positioning. It is comparative advertising and its psychological effectiveness is flawed, since what the consumer easily detects is: "If your brand is so good, how come it is not the leader?" (Ries and Trout, 2001). Olins (2003) defends the same concept and says that rejecting conventions that surround a business is sometimes the best idea. Companies should challenge the existing associations. Sinek (2010) explains that Apple has done exactly this with their computers. They have sold their vision of an ideal world instead of focusing on how the look of their products. For years, cars were becoming better looking and more streamlined, until the Volkswagen Beetle got in the market and challenged the canons of car manufacturing. The conventional way to advertise this car would have been to maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses, but they stated their position very clearly: 'think small'. Two simple words stated Volkswagen position and challenged consumer's assumption that bigger is not a synonym of better.
Olins (2003) explains that there are four vectors by which a brand manifests itself: product, environment, communication, and behaviour. In other words: the what, where and how of a company. Brands are usually a mix of these four vectors, and those based on products function are doing right, but that function must be supported by the ergonomics and aesthetics of the design. On the other hand, if the product is not right, the design cannot make it work. People choose hotels based on what they feel like, their facilities and location. These three are all environmental factors. Coca-Cola, for example, is a communication-driven brand, specifically in advertising. Its packaging, materials, events and so on are designed to arouse a very specific set of emotions. These emotions are what makes this product be seen through its communication. Airlines are an example of behaviourally led brands. Customers judge them based on the service and not in the time it took for them to get from point A to point B.
In conclusion, there is not an exact way to persuade consumers to make a certain decision. Designers and marketers can influence those decisions, but there is no guarantee of success as many other aspects fall out of control. Brands are vulnerable to trends, the use consumers make of a brand and also to themselves, as bad management can be self-destructive. However, the right influence of emotions over a long period of time following a strong strategy can humanise brands by giving them personality. This personality is based on a set of assets that are easier to identify and remember for the consumers.
Bernays (1928) thought that human beings are rarely aware of what motivates their actions. He claimed that consumers believe they buy a car because they have concluded that is the best choice after a careful study of technical features from different models. The real reason might be the social environment is pushing that person to buy a certain car. "Many of man's thoughts and actions are compensatory substitutes for desires which have been obliged to suppress" (Bernays, 1928. P. 74). A consumer might not necessarily desire something for its intrinsic worth or usefulness, but because of its meaning. A person might really want a car because it is a symbol of social position, an evidence of success. As Packard (1957) puts it, customers buy a promise. Cosmetics sell hope, not lanolin. Oranges sell vitality. Cars sell prestige. One cannot assume that people know what they want or will tell the truth about it even if they do. Packard (1957) assures that people do not seem to be reasonable in their decisions, but this does not mean they do not have a purpose. Their behaviour makes sense in terms of their goals, needs, and motives. In addition to this, Bernays (1928) said that in order to attract customers, a company needs to understand not only their own business but also the structure, personality, and prejudices of their target audience. DuPont's investigators (1945-1954) found out that many people do not make a list of the things they need to buy in the store, which means that shoppers buy on impulse. James Vicary (quoted in Packard, 1957, p.112) suspected that consumers might be under pressure when confronted with so many different choices that they were forced to quickly decide what to purchase.
Olins (2003) explains that a product can connect with the audience using emotional appeals to encourage people to spend money. The key issue, Olins (2003, p. 11) points out, "it is how and where and in what cause it [emotional appeal] is used that is truly significant". Jannson-Boyd (2010) clarifies that it is important to find a mid-point in arousal, not too high or too low, where the audience can have a higher level of attention to stimulate visual selective attention. Humans explore environments mainly visually and there are several theories of what they normally focus on depending on their culture, language (if they write from left to right or the other way around) and so on. Although, Jannson-Boyd (2010) assures that there is not a consistent pattern of how humans conduct a visual search. Ries and Trout (2001, p.19), whose theories about positioning are relevant later on this text, argues "positioning is an organised system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept that communication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances".
Olins (2003) claims that it is a fact that people like brands. If not, they would not buy them. There is a flaw in this statement because consumers have to buy certain products out of need. Brands compete with each other when two or more meet the same basic function. To understand how brands work it is important to understand what motivates human beings. Abraham Maslow (quoted in Lusensky, 2010, p.35-36) claimed that we all aspire to reach the top of his pyramid, either consciously or unconsciously. For example, 'esteem needs' lack of importance when 'safety needs' are not covered.
The lower part of the pyramid represent the basic needs our modern, convenient and relatively safe society. After fulfilling those, we look for something more. Freud (1923), on the other hand, in his second theory about the structure of the physic apparatus, distinguishes three fundamental instances. The 'Id', formed by the conscious and unconscious, is the psychic expression of drives and desires. It is in conflict with the 'Ego' and 'Super-Ego'. The 'Ego' is the acting psychic instance and is the mediator between the other two. It tries to conciliate the normative and punitive exigences of the 'Super-Ego' as well as the demands of the 'Id' to satisfy unconscious desires. Its function is to achieve the greatest degree of pleasure in the limits of reality. The 'Super-ego' is the judge of the Ego and constitutes the internalisation of the norms, rules and parental prohibitions. The specific functions of each entity are not always clear and they are interwoven in many levels and personality is constituted by this model of diverse forces in inevitable conflict. In this model, things like aesthetic needs are the result of our unconsciousness trying to satisfy the Id. The Id can be equally unsatisfied, and the deprivation of biological and physiological needs can cause a person to accomplish cognitive needs to satisfy the Id.
These models can be applied to marketing strategies. For example, Barbara Kruger uses humour to bring forward unconscious and controversial messages such as 'I shop therefore I am' or 'Buy me, I will change your life' to create a comic, controversial and self-aware environment. Riezebos (2003) says the first choice taken in brand values is the aspiration level of the brand. There are three aspiration levels: the need-driven (related to material and biological consumer needs), the outer-directed (consumers' relational needs) and the inner-directed level (need for self-actualisation). "The choice for an aspiration level can be made by taking three factors into account: the characteristics of the product, the characteristics of the organisation and the choices made by competitors" (Riezebos, 2003, p.61). It is important that the strategy avoids creating conflicts or contradicted messages between the aspiration level of a company. Riezebos (2003) points out that the ideal scenario would be to first choose one or two aspiration levels: one that describes the needs on which the other is focusing in greater detail. Then, Riezebos (2003, p.61) specifies "a maximum of three values may be selected within the aspiration level(s) chosen". In the following table, each aspiration level has specific values.
Customers choose brands to tell others who they are and what they believe in. Consuming is a modern way of unconscious expression. In opposition to what Packard (1957) said about controlling customers decisions, marketing does not have an entire control over the brand, customers do. Its power comes from a mixture of performance and what it stands for. If customers find certain harmony in this mixture, they feel it adds an extra meaning to their identities. Lusensky (2010) puts it simpler: brands establish relationships with customers in a human way, so brands are treated like individuals with their own set of values and beliefs. If a personality can be designed for a business, it means that a business can be personified. Human personality traits are associated with a brand, and sometimes, real persons are utilised to represent a brand. For example, Richard Branson with Virgin. Aaker, J (1997) claims that these traits can be associated indirectly through other features like name, symbol, style, price or distribution channel.
Riezebos (2003) links these ideas with design, explaining that the identity must visualise material brand values and an immaterial experience world using visual codes for recognition. These codes can be kept or broken. Marketers need to understand the communication codes in particular cultures to be in control of the meaning. Unspoken rules and conventions that structure sign systems and meanings, Lawes (2002) says. When a personality has to be faithfully conveyed across different cultures, it is important to consider the five factors of brand personality: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness. Brand personality offers a way for personal expression by the consumer based on metaphors, symbols, emotional benefits and self-expressive benefits. But what counts the most in communication, Ries and Trout (2001) say, it is receptivity. When two individuals fall in love with each other it is because they are both receptive to that idea. One of the main objectives in advertising is to heighten expectations about a product or service and make consumers believe it will perform the expected miracles. In a talk in 1956 in Philadelphia, Pierre Marineau (quoted in Pike, 2015, p. 27) said that advertising is no longer what it was once: a presentation of the merits of a product. The intention is to create an ideal situation where the customer falls in love with the product that is being advertised. To create this illusion, Marineau said the first task is to create a differentiation in the mind of the consumer, an individualisation from the rest.
Ries and Trout (2001) explain different strategies to be heard in a market where every year there is more to be said than what is received. Positioning help marketers to overcome this, but it is not something that can be done to a product. As explained before, it is the mind of the consumer what can be altered to position a product. Ries and Trout (2001) explain that an oversimplified message is the most effective approach to take in an over-communicated society. Olins (2003) agrees and adds that a product must be differentiated and designed to be in a specific way to appeal to a specific market. Names, typefaces, colours or even music and smells derive from emotional power. There are hundreds of similar products in a very competitive market, all fighting each other to get customers attention. Design has the power in making this differentiation through emotions. It is a matter of choosing what is really important in that message for the best chance to get it through. When a company is second in a market, Ries and Trout (2001) explain that there is an opportunity to take the 'uncola' position. This is due to the strategy that 7-Up once carried out, linking their product with something that already existed in the mind of the consumer as an alternative to it. Conventional logic says that the concept can be found in a brand or its product, but this does not work when trying to find a unique position. It is the consumer's mind that creates it. The 'uncola' is not inside a 7-Up can, it is in the drinker's memory. 7-up took into account the position of their competitors.
This is only one example of many different strategies each position requires. These strategies that use existing businesses are directly related to how the signifier and the signified work for semiotic analysis. The signifier (for example, a brand name) does not have a meaning on its own. The meaning is acquired through associations with other pre-existing meanings until it stands on its own. The signifier is a statement of a fact. The signified is a connotative communication that generates associations, feel and overtones. It can be anything that can be linked with the signifier (Rosenbaum-Elliott et al., 2007). In 1982, the French philosopher Jacques Derrida (quoted in Chapman, 2005, p.12) analysed this and explained that meaning cannot be found in the signifier itself. It can only exist in relation to other things. There is little conscious access to this matrix, but it is everywhere in the human world. The absolute identity does not exist because these concepts are co-dependent. This matrix cannot exist without society, so it is a mirror individuals use to assess their own hierarchical position. Material possessions are deployed as signifiers of status. They allow consumers to cast a desired role. Humans consume meaning, not matter. Objects simply provide the canvas for these connotations for the user. These reflections help individuals to construct their own identity and shape their future. As Olins (2003) puts it, markets are very competitive, and rational choice is now an oddity. Brands are there for clarity, status, membership and everything else that helps consumers to define themselves. Claiming that a company is better than its competitors, is not re-positioning. It is comparative advertising and its psychological effectiveness is flawed, since what the consumer easily detects is: "If your brand is so good, how come it is not the leader?" (Ries and Trout, 2001). Olins (2003) defends the same concept and says that rejecting conventions that surround a business is sometimes the best idea. Companies should challenge the existing associations. Sinek (2010) explains that Apple has done exactly this with their computers. They have sold their vision of an ideal world instead of focusing on how the look of their products. For years, cars were becoming better looking and more streamlined, until the Volkswagen Beetle got in the market and challenged the canons of car manufacturing. The conventional way to advertise this car would have been to maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses, but they stated their position very clearly: 'think small'. Two simple words stated Volkswagen position and challenged consumer's assumption that bigger is not a synonym of better.
Olins (2003) explains that there are four vectors by which a brand manifests itself: product, environment, communication, and behaviour. In other words: the what, where and how of a company. Brands are usually a mix of these four vectors, and those based on products function are doing right, but that function must be supported by the ergonomics and aesthetics of the design. On the other hand, if the product is not right, the design cannot make it work. People choose hotels based on what they feel like, their facilities and location. These three are all environmental factors. Coca-Cola, for example, is a communication-driven brand, specifically in advertising. Its packaging, materials, events and so on are designed to arouse a very specific set of emotions. These emotions are what makes this product be seen through its communication. Airlines are an example of behaviourally led brands. Customers judge them based on the service and not in the time it took for them to get from point A to point B.
In conclusion, there is not an exact way to persuade consumers to make a certain decision. Designers and marketers can influence those decisions, but there is no guarantee of success as many other aspects fall out of control. Brands are vulnerable to trends, the use consumers make of a brand and also to themselves, as bad management can be self-destructive. However, the right influence of emotions over a long period of time following a strong strategy can humanise brands by giving them personality. This personality is based on a set of assets that are easier to identify and remember for the consumers.
Wednesday 1 November 2017
Chapter outlining - First tutorial
The tutorial with Ben helped me to finally focus on a specific theme. What started being "Psychology in branding" turned into "brand strategy and customer choices", but it still was too broad. After talking about my interests in this research, the question was better defined as how relevant are previous forms of research to brand strategy today?. But after going back to my notes and starting to write the first chapter, it was slightly changed to 'How relevant are previous forms of consumer persuasion to brand strategy today?'.
The dissertation will explore the relationship between clients, agencies, audiences and possible third parties and how they have been related in the past and nowadays.
These are the chapters that were outlined:
1) Existing/former ways of persuasion.
- Outdated methods of persuasion. Bernays, E (1928), Ollins, W (2003), Packard, V. (1957)
· Propaganda
· Different ersuasive tactics
- Contemporary methods of branding. Adams, S and Morioka, N (2006), Ries, A and Trout, J (2001), Ollins, W (2003), Jansson-Boyd, C. (2010), Rosenbaum-Elliott et al. (2007)
· Positioning
· Brand management
· Consumer psychology
2) New methods of branding.
- Future of branding. Lusensky, J (2010), Ollins, W (2003), The Futur, Simon Sinek, Chapman, J. (2005)
· CORE
· Lovemarks
· Golden Circle
3) Case studies.
How Apple became the successful company that it is nowadays after almost going to bankruptcy thanks to a succesful brand strategy.
4) Research: what would I remove from / add to these methods or how would I combine them for a better outcome?
Practical work: test out different methodologies of brand strategy across time.
The dissertation will explore the relationship between clients, agencies, audiences and possible third parties and how they have been related in the past and nowadays.
These are the chapters that were outlined:
1) Existing/former ways of persuasion.
- Outdated methods of persuasion. Bernays, E (1928), Ollins, W (2003), Packard, V. (1957)
· Propaganda
· Different ersuasive tactics
- Contemporary methods of branding. Adams, S and Morioka, N (2006), Ries, A and Trout, J (2001), Ollins, W (2003), Jansson-Boyd, C. (2010), Rosenbaum-Elliott et al. (2007)
· Positioning
· Brand management
· Consumer psychology
2) New methods of branding.
- Future of branding. Lusensky, J (2010), Ollins, W (2003), The Futur, Simon Sinek, Chapman, J. (2005)
· CORE
· Lovemarks
· Golden Circle
3) Case studies.
How Apple became the successful company that it is nowadays after almost going to bankruptcy thanks to a succesful brand strategy.
4) Research: what would I remove from / add to these methods or how would I combine them for a better outcome?
Practical work: test out different methodologies of brand strategy across time.
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